Chapter Three: The Tang Style of Nara
It is said that Genbo once intended to seize the wife of Fujiwara Hirotsugu, the eldest son of Fujiwara no Uga (many Buddhist sects in Japan do not strictly prohibit marriage). As a result, the animosity between the two was profound. However, the fundamental divergence in their political stances, along with their covetousness and desire to usurp power, likely served as the true root cause for the eventual outbreak of the "Fujiwara Hirotsugu Rebellion." In any case, the hot-tempered Fujiwara Hirotsugu was exceptionally averse to the authority wielded by Genbo and Kibi no Makibi, and he repeatedly requested their removal, either directly or through petitions. Consequently, he was exiled from Kyoto and appointed as the Deputy Governor of Dazaifu in Kyushu.
What is a surname? A surname represents the division of a clan and can have various origins, such as place names, official titles, or estate names. Surnames can often be changed and are more akin to the ancient Chinese clans. For example, the Takeda surname originates from the Gen clan's Shinra Saburo Yoshimitsu, whose descendants served as the Kai guardians, such as Takeda Shingen, while another branch served as the Wakasa guardians, such as Takeda Motokatsu. Furthermore, among the famous generals of the Warring States period, many claimed the Hojo surname, yet almost none were true descendants of the prestigious Taira clan: Hojo Sōun and his three generations came from humble beginnings, with unclear origins, and adopted the Hojo surname to legitimize their dominance in the Kanto region. General Hojo Ujitsuna was originally the son of the Imagawa vassal Fukushima Masanari, and he was granted the Hojo surname after marrying the daughter of Hojo Ujitsuna, which was a case of usurpation. Additionally, the renowned general Hojo Takahiro under Uesugi Kenshin originally bore the surname Mori (his family crest was also a single character with three stars), but he adopted the name of the territory he governed, Hojo, thus becoming part of the prominent Hojo clan.
There are legends that suggest that Fujiwara no Kamatari was once a guest of Empress Kōken, which explains his resentment when the retired emperor abandoned him in favor of Dōkyō. In summary, due to the Dōkyō issue, the conflict between the retired emperor and the reigning emperor intensified. In June of the 6th year of the Tenpyō Hōji era (762), the retired emperor moved back to Heijō-kyō from his place of seclusion and announced the deprivation of Emperor Junnin's powers. All state affairs and personnel rewards and punishments were to be decreed and executed by himself—thus, the retired emperor regained power in the name of the retired emperor, which, in a sense, marked the beginning of what would later be known as "insei" or "cloistered rule." In summary, due to the Dōkyō issue, the conflict between the retired emperor and the reigning emperor intensified. In June of the 6th year of the Tenpyō Hōji era (762), the retired emperor moved back to Heijō-kyō from his place of seclusion and announced the deprivation of Emperor Junnin's powers. All state affairs and personnel rewards and punishments were to be decreed and executed by himself—thus, the retired emperor regained power in the name of the retired emperor, which, in a sense, marked the beginning of what would later be known as "insei" or "cloistered rule."
After the capital was moved to Heijō-kyō, Japan entered the "Nara Period," an era that thoroughly revered Tang culture and was characterized by constant imitation and learning from continental culture.
The decisive Emperor Tenmu, despite his resoluteness in other matters, hesitated regarding the issue of succession. Just two years after appointing Prince Kusakabe as the Crown Prince, he allowed Prince Otsu to participate in state affairs, undoubtedly igniting a new factional struggle reminiscent of the conflicts between the Yamato and the Ōtomo. Fortunately, Prince Kusakabe had a ruthless mother. In September of the first year of the Juchō era (July 20, 686, the newly established era name), Emperor Tenmu passed away. Before his remains had even cooled, Empress Tsuneno took control of the court and falsely accused Prince Otsu of treason, arresting him and over thirty of his associates. In October, Prince Otsu was forced to commit suicide, leaving behind a farewell poem: "The golden bird perches on the western chamber, the drumbeat hastens my short life, the spring path has no hosts, this evening I leave home."
It is said that Fujiwara Hirotsugu's army consists of more than 10,000 men, advancing in three routes towards the northernmost part of Kyushu, preparing to cross the sea to Kyoto. Upon receiving the report, Emperor Shomu urgently ordered Councilor Ohno Tohin to lead, mobilizing a grand army of 17,000 from the five provinces of Tokai and Tokasan, setting out in a grand procession to Kyushu to quell the rebellion
After Hirotsugu's death, the Fujiwara clan began to decline. However, in the world, there is ultimately no lasting glory and wealth. Five years later, Hirotsugu's rival, Genbo, and Kibi no Makibi also fell out of favor one after another. Genbo was exiled to Chikuzen and ultimately killed by Hirotsugu's remnants, while Kibi no Makibi was demoted to the position of governor of Chikuzen. As for the Tachibana brothers, their power gradually diminished, and they were eventually replaced by Nakamaru of the Fujiwara Nankai family.
The "Great Treasure Code" once again confirmed the land redistribution system. To facilitate its implementation, it also imitated the household registration system established during the Tang Dynasty. However, in the Tang Dynasty, an average household consisted of four to five people, representing a true family unit. In contrast, a Japanese household, referred to as a "village household," averaged around twenty individuals, not only comprising multiple generations living together but also including a considerable number of non-kin members, resembling small "clans" or "tribes." This is also significant evidence of the continued prevalence of remnants of the slave system.
Emperor Kōtoku had two reign titles: Taika and Hakuchi. The subsequent emperors of the Jitō and Tenji eras did not change their reign titles. In October 671, Emperor Tenji fell gravely ill and, under the pretext of becoming a monk to pray for the emperor, Prince Ōama fled south to Yoshino to avoid disaster. In December, Emperor Tenji passed away. Before his death, he entrusted the throne to Prince Ōtomo and instructed the Left Minister Soga no Akikuni, the Right Minister Nakatomi no Kamatari, as well as the Minister of State Soga no Kurayasu, and Kose no Takanori to jointly assist Prince Ōtomo.
However, in ancient Japan, commoners did not have surnames. It was only after the Meiji Restoration in modern times that it became mandatory for everyone to have a surname, resulting in many surnames being created without any historical origin
Dazaifu was a permanent institution responsible for the political and military affairs of the western sea region, existing outside the administrative system of the Seven Provinces. The head of Dazaifu, known as Dazaifu-shu, was not a fixed position; the actual work was often carried out by the deputy officials, Dazaifu-dai and Dazaifu-shō. After Fujiwara no Hirotsugu arrived in Kyushu, he took advantage of local social conflicts to recruit soldiers extensively. In the twelfth year of Tenpyō (740), after being reprimanded for once again petitioning to execute Genbō and Kibi no Makibi, he openly instigated a rebellion.
The Yashiro clan and its affiliates were nearly annihilated by Emperor Kōken, and even Emperor Jun'nin could not escape this fate. On October 9, he was deposed and exiled to Awaji Island. The former emperor ascended the throne once more, a period known as the reign of Empress Teitoku. With the death of Empress Yashiro, the Fujiwara Nanka clan also began to decline.
The promulgation of the Great Bao Legal Code
The portrait of Prince Shotoku is depicted with a black cap adorned with a curved wing, wearing a round-collared long robe, a jade belt at the waist, and carrying a straight double-edged sword. He is clad in 'black leather shoes' and holds a tablet in his hands. Regardless of the angle from which one observes, he resembles a bureaucrat from the Tang Dynasty rather than a Japanese person. However, this was precisely the common attire of Japanese officials during the Nara period; they wore Tang clothing, wrote in Chinese characters, read Han literature, and composed Tang poetry, completely immersed in the continental culture that had come from the West.
The Rebellion of Fujiwara no Hirotsugu
The Mirror of the Kingly Way
After the ascension of Empress Wu Zetian, an edict was issued to construct a new capital, located in the Nara region of northern Yamato, with architectural styles completely modeled after the Tang capital of Chang'an. In the third year of the Jōwa era (710 AD), the capital was officially relocated and named Heijō-kyō, also known as "Little Chang'an." This capital city spanned approximately 4.2 kilometers from east to west and about 4.8 kilometers from north to south, with a wide north-south thoroughfare, Suzaku Avenue, running through the center, dividing the city into the left and right capitals. According to the *Diagram* book, each part was further divided into four sections, each of which was separated by nine major roads, forming dozens of "blocks" with a remarkably orderly layout. The northern central part of the capital housed what was referred to as the "Inner Court," which was the imperial palace.
Prince Omi gathered the armies of various Eastern nations and advanced to the crucial pass of Meino, which remained unbroken. Prince Oda dispatched troops to confront him. The battle first erupted at Sekigahara (remember this strategic location, as nearly a thousand years later, another battle that would determine the fate of all Japan would take place here). The Eastern army achieved an initial victory, then split into two routes: one advancing directly westward, and the other heading south to Ise and Yamato before turning north, intending to encircle the capital located in Omi Province. Although Prince Oda was not defeated, he had very few allies and retreated step by step after engaging in battle. Ultimately, both sides faced off in a decisive battle near the capital at the Setagawa River, where the army of Prince Omi, marked by red flags and red armbands, was seen everywhere, with drums thundering and arrows raining down. The forces of Prince Oda were quickly routed. Prince Oda hanged himself, one of his five trusted ministers committed suicide, while one was executed, two were exiled, and one was pardoned. Prince Omi triumphantly entered the capital, which had turned into a scene of ruins.
The medieval Japanese official system took shape in the "Taihō Code," where the central government modeled after the Tang Dynasty's Three Departments and Six Ministries, establishing two offices, eight ministries, one council, and five guard agencies. The two offices consist of the deity office responsible for rituals and the highest administrative body, the Council of State. The head of the Council of State is the Chancellor, with assistant officials being the Left and Right Ministers and the Inner Minister, followed by officials of three ranks: Senior, Middle, and Junior Councillors, overseeing the eight ministries: the Ministry of Central Affairs, the Ministry of Ceremonial, the Ministry of Governance, the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of the Imperial Household. The council refers to the Danzōtai, which is responsible for supervision; the five guard agencies refer to the gate guards, the Left and Right Guards, and the Left and Right Military Guards. Initially, the position of Chancellor was exclusively granted to members of the imperial family and was often concurrently held by the Crown Prince, who oversaw state affairs. Among the ministers, the highest rank is the Left Minister, followed by the Right Minister, both holding the rank equivalent to the second rank in our official hierarchy.
After Empress Genzei, there was Emperor Shomu, who had three reign titles: Jin'kai, Tenpei, and Tenpei Kanpo. The "Tenpei Culture," which flourished once again following the Baifeng Culture, is named after his reign title. The center of Tenpei Culture remained Buddhism and Confucianism, with an unprecedented number of missions sent to Tang China, bringing a large quantity of Buddhist scriptures and Confucian classics to Japan. The Nara court also began to establish universities and national studies to educate and select the sons of nobility or local governors' sons for official positions. The narrow definition of Tenpei Culture refers specifically to the culture during Emperor Shomu's Tenpei era, while the broad definition encompasses the entire Nara period. The renowned monk Jianzhen also crossed the sea to Japan for missionary work during this period
In summary, the Nara court gradually grew stronger through continuous learning and conquest. Following the Empress of the Yuan and Ming dynasties was Empress Genjo, who had two reign titles: Linggui and Yanglao. In the second year of Yanglao (718), Fujiwara no Fuhito was commissioned to revise the Taihō Code, resulting in the most complete Yanglao Code. Two years later, the Tai'an Wanlu completed the Nihon Shoki.
The Prince of the Sea, Emperor Tenmu, ordered the construction of a new capital and palace in Yamato, known as the Asuka Naka-no-Miya. In the following year (673), he officially ascended the throne, historically referred to as Emperor Tenmu, and appointed Princess Utano as Empress. Prince Ōtomo, having been defeated, committed suicide and was stripped of his title as emperor. It was not until over 1,200 years later, during the Meiji period, that he was posthumously honored as Emperor Kōbun.
In September of that year, the imperial army's vanguard entered the Nine Provinces. By early October, they faced off against the rebel forces at the Gaban River, and on the 9th, intense battles commenced. The morale among the rebels was disorganized, and before long, many surrendered. Fujiwara no Hirotsugu suffered a crushing defeat and attempted to flee to Silla, but was forced to return due to unfavorable winds. On the 23rd, he was captured by the imperial army on Jikashima in Hizen, and a few days later, he was executed. The tumultuous rebellion led by Fujiwara no Hirotsugu was quelled in less than six months.
Empress Shōtoku was indulging in a life of excess, showing no interest in governing the state. Consequently, Dōkyō coveted the imperial throne and hinted to the officials that he had received a divine oracle at the Usa Hachiman Shrine: "Dōkyō's ascension will bring peace to the realm." The Usa Hachiman Shrine, located in Kyushu, is a renowned Shinto shrine with significant influence, prompting Empress Shōtoku to send Waki Kiyomaro to confirm this. Before his departure, Dōkyō promised that if he succeeded in becoming emperor, he would appoint Waki Kiyomaro as the Chancellor. However, Waki Kiyomaro disregarded his offer of an official position and returned months later with the oracle, clearly declaring: "Since the creation of heaven and earth, our nation has been one where the distinctions between ruler and subject are strictly observed; there has never been a case of a subject becoming the ruler. If a wicked person dares to covet the sacred treasures, it will not be tolerated by the deities. It is imperative to establish a royal heir and eliminate the wicked!"
Empress Jitō, also known as Empress Jitō, during her reign, placed great trust in Prince Takamichi and the monk Dambi, continuing her husband's unfinished reform efforts. In 689, she promulgated the 22-volume "Asuka Clean Imperial Regulations." She was also quite cultured, adept at reciting Chinese poetry, which led to the emergence of the "White Phoenix Culture" near Kyoto, characterized by a Tang-style influence and a focus on Buddhism.
Emperor Monmu is renowned for the Taihō Code, yet his reign was not long. In the second year of Taihō (702), the retired Emperor Jitō passed away, and five years later, Emperor Monmu also breathed his last. The Emperor's son, Prince Kusakabe, was only seven years old—just the same age as his father when he lost his own father. Consequently, the Emperor's mother, Princess Abe (originally written with a character meaning 'below' in the middle of the character for 'gate'), ascended the throne, changing the era name to Wado, and became Empress Genmei. With the precedent set by Empress Jitō, it seemed only natural for a young prince to be temporarily succeeded by his mother or grandmother as Emperor.
The Rebellion of Ren Shen
The success of Taishi Emishi Yashō can be attributed to two significant backers: one is Empress Fujiwara Komyo, the consort of Emperor Shōmu, and the other is Empress Kōken. However, Empress Komyo passed away in 760, and Empress Kōken (at that time a retired emperor) began to oppose Emperor Junni due to the issues surrounding the monk Dōkyō in 762. Emishi Yashō sided with the emperor, which ultimately led to a complete falling out with the retired emperor.
In the year following the restoration of Empress Kōken (765), the era name was changed to Tenpyō-shin'ei, and shortly thereafter, Dōkyō was appointed as a minister, referred to as the "Minister Zen Master." According to the Empress's own words: "I, as a monk, should appoint monks as ministers." Thus, in that same year, during the intercalary tenth month, Dōkyō was unexpectedly promoted to the position of Chancellor, and the following year, he was further granted the title of Dharma King.
The situation in Japan is quite the opposite. "Uji" refers to the clan of the *Tsu* family (the ancient clans of Japan were not necessarily composed of blood relations), while "Sei" refers to the titles granted by the Yamato court to the upper nobility, such as "Shin," "Ren," "Zo," and so on. This type of "Sei" actually carries connotations of caste, distinguishing the status of clans. The later granted surnames such as Fujiwara, Tachibana, Minamoto, and Taira, strictly speaking, are still considered "Uji" rather than "Sei." The formal address for noble men must use both the "Sei" and "Uji," for example, "Fujiwara no Asomi Kujō Kaneshige," where Fujiwara is the "Uji," Asomi is the "Sei," Kujō is the "Myōji" (meaning descendant), and Kaneshige is the name.
The "Great Treasure Code" also stipulated the military institutions across the nation, with the central government establishing five guard offices, while local military corps were managed by the governors of various states. Additionally, a Defense Office was set up under the Dazaifu in Kyushu to guard against foreign invasions, and a garrison office was established in Mutsu to defend against the Emishi. The term Emishi is said to refer to the Ainu people, the indigenous inhabitants of the northeastern region, or it may denote a branch of the Yamato people that developed later.
When discussing Japanese surnames, one must first consider Chinese surnames. What was the surname of Shang Yang? Was it Shang? Incorrect. Was it Wei? Incorrect. Was it Gongsun? Even more incorrect! In ancient China, surnames and clan names were distinct; women used surnames while men used clan names. The term "surname" refers to a person's lineage (of course, only the nobility had the leisure to study or embellish their lineage), while the "clan name" represents a person's social status. Shang Yang belonged to the noble class of the State of Wei, which was a vassal state of the Zhou Dynasty sharing the same surname, so Shang Yang's surname should be the royal surname of Zhou—Ji. He was from Wei, thus adopting the state name Wei as his clan name, referred to as Wei Yang; he was of the noble class of Wei, hence also called Gongsun Yang; and after serving in Qin, he was granted the title in Shangyu, thus also known as Shang Yang. Wei, Gongsun, and Shang are indeed his clan names. Similarly, Jiang Ziya had the surname Jiang, but was also known as Lü Shi (likely referring to his birthplace) and Taigong Shi (as honored by King Wu of Zhou); Qin Shi Huang had the surname Ying, but was also known as Zhao Shi (born in the State of Zhao) and Qin Shi (the ruler of Qin). Such examples abound.
In the tenth year of Emperor Tenmu (681 AD, the year following the death of Emperor Tenji, which is also the year before Emperor Tenmu officially ascended the throne), in February, the compilation of the "Asuka Clean Imperial Code" began, marking the second codified legal code in Japanese history. In the same month, Prince Kusakabe was appointed as the Crown Prince.
It is estimated that during the era of Emperor Tenmu, the Yamato state began to officially refer to itself as "Japan" in its foreign relations. The "Old Book of Tang" states: "The country of Japan is a different entity from the Yamato state. It is named Japan because it is located at the edge of the sun. Some say that the Yamato state disliked its name for being unrefined and changed it to Japan. Others claim that Japan was an old small country, encompassing the land of the Yamato state. Many of its envoys to the court are quite boastful and do not speak truthfully, hence China has its doubts." The "New Book of Tang" records this event after "In the first year of Xianheng, (the Yamato state) sent envoys to congratulate on the peace with Goguryeo." The first year of Xianheng in the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang corresponds to the year 679 AD, which is also the year before the death of Emperor Tenji.
The period following the Nara period is known as the Heian period, characterized by a glamorous exterior yet a decayed and extravagant interior. The actual rulers of the Heian period, the Fujiwara clan, as representatives of the court nobility, have often left a legacy of elegance and fragility in the eyes of posterity. However, in reality, the Fujiwara clan also underwent brutal political struggles, paving their path with bodies and blood before ultimately seizing power.
In February of the year 697, the fifteen-year-old Prince Kiyomaro was established as the Crown Prince. In August of that year, Empress Jitō abdicated in favor of Prince Kiyomaro, who became Emperor Monmu. In the fifth year of Emperor Monmu's reign (701), in March, the era name "Taihō" was officially established, marking the formalization of the era name system. That year was designated as the first year of Taihō, and in August, the compilation of the "Taihō Code" was completed, which was distributed to various provinces in October of the following year for comprehensive implementation
Prince Kusakabe also maintained a close relationship with Fujiwara no Fuhito. Before his death, he entrusted him with a ceremonial sword, urging him to wholeheartedly assist his son, Prince Kiyomaro, who later became Emperor Monbu. During the Monbu era, Fuhito was promoted to the rank of Jusanmi Dainagon, and subsequently elevated to the position of Second Right Minister, nearing the pinnacle of ministerial authority.
Is Daozu Wang really that despicable? It is now widely believed that this was the result of a conspiracy or deliberate slander by Fujiwara no Nakamaro. In any case, in order to establish a new crown prince, Empress Kōken summoned her ministers for discussion. Nakamaro, against the majority opinion, supported the son of the close associate Shōnin Prince, Prince Ōsuki. Ultimately, Prince Ōsuki became the heir apparent, and Nakamaro's power and prestige reached their peak. The following year, he prompted Empress Kōken to issue an edict to implement the "Elderly Care Law," which had been formulated by his father Fujiwara no Fuhito but had been shelved for a full 39 years.
This event took place in the fifth month of the eighth year of the Tenpyō Shōhō era (757). By July, Tachibana Naramaro, the son of Tachibana no Kiyomaro, could no longer contain himself. Taking advantage of the people's suffering due to the construction of Buddhist statues in the temples, he conspired to launch a coup in alliance with discontented members of the imperial family and clans such as Ōtomo and Saeki against Fujiwara no Nakamaro. At that time, Heijō-kyo was undergoing repairs, and Empress Kōken was deliberating state affairs at Tamura Palace. Tachibana Naramaro's plan was to first assassinate Fujiwara no Nakamaro at Tamura Palace, then depose the Crown Prince Ōsuke, and force the Empress to abdicate, selecting one of the four princes: Shioyaki, Dōso, Kōbun, or Anshuku to inherit the throne. However, a traitor emerged within the organization; Yamashiro no Ō and Nakatsukasa no Shōnen, a member of the Imperial Guard, successively reported the coup plot to Empress Kōken and Fujiwara no Nakamaro. The Empress and Nakamaro acted swiftly, arresting the conspirators and executing the principal instigators, including Tachibana Naramaro and Prince Kōbun, while exiling over 400 accomplices.
The Rise and Fall of Huimei Yasheng
In the sixth year of the Divine Tortoise era (729 AD, when the era name was changed to Tenpyō in August), the Fujiwara clan launched a full-scale attack. On the 10th of February, they incited two minor officials to report to Emperor Shomu, claiming that Prince Nagaya was "practicing heretical teachings and seeking to undermine the state." After gaining the Emperor's trust, Fujiwara no Uga and others immediately led the imperial guards to surround Prince Nagaya's residence, with Prince Shōnin personally entering to question him. Prince Nagaya was left speechless and was forced to commit suicide two days later—though it was termed a suicide, his legitimate wife and several sons also took their own lives, which raises some suspicions about the circumstances.
Emperor Shomu's mother was originally Princess Miyako, the daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito, and he himself married another daughter of Fuhito, Princess Komyo, who was his aunt by relation. Upon ascending the throne, Emperor Shomu sought to posthumously honor his mother with the title "Great Lady" (the highest title for non-royal consorts of the emperor), but faced opposition from the courtiers of the Nagaya clan, forcing him to retract the edict. From that point on, the Fujiwara clan and the Nagaya clan began a prolonged struggle, both overt and covert.
Fujiwara no Fuhito was the son of Nakatomi no Kamatari and can be regarded as the founding ancestor of the illustrious Fujiwara clan. Fuhito lost his father, Kamatari, at the tender age of ten, which can be described as a childhood bereavement. When the Fujiwara clan was entrusted to him, it possessed only a magnificent reputation. However, he was diligent and studious from a young age, and with the appreciation of Emperors Tenmu and Jitō for Nakatomi no Kamatari's contributions, he received considerable care. In 689, he was appointed to the position of judge, marking the official beginning of his illustrious political career
Fujiwara Nakamaro made every effort to uphold the ritsuryō system, which was gradually failing to meet the needs of the times. Fourteen years later, he once again ordered the redistribution of land and adjusted the age of conscription for men to alleviate the burdens on the common people. However, for the political situation at that time, this was akin to a drop in the bucket. Emperor Shōmu, during his reign, was a devout believer in Buddhism and ordered the construction of kokubun-ji (provincial temples) and kokubun-niji (provincial nunneries) in every province. In the vicinity of Kyoto, he also undertook major renovations of temples and the construction of a Great Buddha, which incurred enormous expenses and brought heavy calamities upon the people. Although Emperor Shōmu abdicated, his actions as a retired emperor did not cease. Therefore, Nakamaro's governance may not have brought significant benefits to the lower classes, but it certainly offended a considerable number of nobles, especially the newly emerging class of estate owners.
The "Taihō Code" is one of the important representatives of the Japanese ritsuryō system legal codes. It is divided into 6 volumes of laws and 11 volumes of regulations, with the laws roughly corresponding to criminal law, while the regulations encompass civil, litigation, and administrative laws. Its foundation is based on the Tang Code, which has been revised and supplemented to suit the actual conditions of Japan. The chief compiler of this code was Prince Shōtoku, but the main contributors were Fujiwara no Fuhito, Kawai no Man, and Kamono no Koma, among eighteen others, most of whom were descendants of envoys to Tang China or immigrants from the continent.
Emperor Junni and Empress Kōmyō began to secretly plan a counteraction against the arbitrary rule of the Retired Emperor. The clan of Empress Kōmyō gained control over the command of the Imperial Guard and the administrative authority of several provinces in the Kinki region. In September of the 8th year of the Tenpyō Hōji era (764), Emperor Junni appointed Empress Kōmyō as the military governor of the four provinces of Kinki, the three passes, Ōmi, Tanba, and Harima, and ordered each province to conscript 20 men for the Imperial Guard. Empress Kōmyō secretly issued a mobilization order to recruit 600 men from each province, gathering and training soldiers under the pretext of drills, in preparation for an uprising.
After removing the stumbling block, the Fujiwara clan successfully elevated Fujiwara no Kōmyō to the throne of Empress in August of that year, allowing the four brothers to take control of the court. Among them, the most powerful were the Nara family's Takechi no Maro and the Shiki family's Uwa—Fujiwara no Uwa was appointed as a councilor in August of the third year of the Tenpyō era (731), a newly established position outside the retirement edict, which, as the name suggests, served as a senior advisor to the court.
On one hand, due to the autocracy of the rulers, the opposition sought to overthrow them; on the other hand, in order to suppress the opposition, the rulers increasingly seized power without restraint. This vicious cycle of contradictions ultimately ignited the fuse of the "Jin Nara Maru Incident." It is said that in May of the 8th year of the Tenpyō Shōhō era (756), Emperor Shōmu passed away, leaving a will that designated Prince Dōso, the grandson of Emperor Tenmu, as the Crown Prince. However, it was reported that during the mourning period for the Emperor, Prince Dōso engaged in lewd activities with his attendants, displaying extremely indecent and disrespectful behavior. Consequently, he was deposed from his position as Crown Prince in March of the following year.
In the first year of the Tianying era (781), Emperor Kōgen abdicated in favor of Prince Yamabe, who is famously known as Emperor Kanmu. In the third year of the Enryaku era (784), Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Nagaoka, and in the thirteenth year of Enryaku (794), he relocated to Kadyō—this new capital was named Heian-kyō. From this point onward, Japan entered the "Heian period"
In ancient times, there were two brothers. The elder brother was named Haisōhiko, and the younger brother was named Yamazōhiko, each pursuing different livelihoods. One day, Yamazōhiko said to Haisōhiko, "I find hunting in the mountains boring every day. You must also find fishing by the sea tedious. Why don't we exchange tools and try each other's work?" Haisōhiko reluctantly agreed and lent his fishing hook to Yamazōhiko, allowing him to fish by the sea. Lacking any experience in fishing, Yamazōhiko ended up losing the hook to a fish. With a sorrowful face, he went to Haisōhiko to apologize, even breaking his own treasured sword to make a thousand fishing hooks as compensation. However, Haisōhiko insisted on retrieving his original fishing hook and refused to forgive his brother. Yamazōhiko wept by the sea, and the deities moved by his sorrow took him into the ocean, where he not only recovered the lost fishing hook but also married the dragon princess, Otohime.
Perhaps to commemorate the peaceful passage through the crisis, on August 18 of that year, an edict was issued to change the era name to Tenpyo Bōji. In the second year of Tenpyo Bōji (758), Empress Kōken abdicated and entered the priesthood, and Prince Kōtoku ascended the throne, becoming Emperor Jun'in. At this time, the influence of Tang China in Japan reached its peak, and even the official titles were entirely modified according to Chinese customs. Fujiwara no Nakamaro was appointed as the Left Minister and was given the new title "Taibo," along with a new name "Emi no Oshikatsu." Two years later, he was promoted to Chancellor and was referred to as "Taishi."
Yamato Takahiko returned to the shore with the fishing hook and the two precious jewels, Tide Rising and Tide Falling, gifted to him by the Dragon Princess. He returned the fishing hook to Umihiko, but at the same time secretly cursed, saying, "This is the hook of trouble, the hook of poverty." Indeed, after receiving the hook back, Umihiko became increasingly impoverished, leading him to covet his brother's wealth. Yamato Takahiko took out the Tide Rising jewel, and immediately the tide surged, instantly submerging Umihiko. Umihiko pleaded for mercy and help, and Yamato Takahiko then took out the Tide Falling jewel, causing the tide to vanish without a trace. From that day on, Umihiko vowed to serve Yamato Takahiko, becoming his retainer and guarding his home. It is said that Umihiko is the ancestor of the Hayato tribe, while Yamato Takahiko, as mentioned in the "Nihon Shoki," was originally named Hiwatori no Mikoto, the grandfather of Emperor Jimmu.
On one hand, in order to encourage immigration to newly conquered territories, the Nara court permitted citizens to privately own newly developed land, leading to a gradual transition from state ownership of feudal land to private ownership. On the other hand, due to uneven land distribution and heavy taxation, many commoners were forced to become dependent on nobles and temples, resulting in the formation of numerous estates. The emergence of the estate system caused the actual power of the state to gradually shift from the emperor, who held state-owned land, to the estate nobles who owned land privately. The Fujiwara clan was the first to rise to prominence, seizing power and initiating the era of regent rule.
The prominence of Nakatsukasa Kamatari and Fujiwara no Fuhito across two generations need not be elaborated further. Fujiwara no Fuhito passed away in September of the fourth year of the Yōrō era (720 AD). He had four sons: Fujiwara no Takechimaru, Fujiwara no Fuhoma, Fujiwara no Uga, and Fujiwara no Maro, who were respectively known as the Southern House, Northern House, Shiki House, and Kyō House. Fuhito ultimately held the position of Minister of the Right, while the actual power of the Daijōkan was still in the hands of the imperial family, with prominent figures including Prince Shenin, Prince Suzuka, and Prince Nagaya among others. Notably, Prince Nagaya was the son of Prince Takai, who first served as the Grand Minister of State and was promoted to Minister of the Right in 721 AD. After Emperor Shōmu ascended the throne, he appointed him as Minister of the Left, effectively controlling the affairs of the court.
This occurred in the year 769, in the second year of the era, in August, Emperor Tōda passed away, designating Prince Shirakabe, the grandson of Emperor Tenji, as the Crown Prince on his deathbed. In October, Prince Shirakabe ascended to the throne, changing the era name to Hōki, and became Emperor Kōnin. With the loss of his patron, the monk Dōkyō was also driven out of the capital in disgrace and went to the remote province of Shimotsuke to serve as the head priest of Yakushiji.
In the fourth year of the Shen Gui era (727), during the intercalary ninth month, Fujiwara no Kōmyōshi gave birth to a prince for Emperor Shōmu. Two months later, this infant, still in swaddling clothes, was designated as the Crown Prince. As the Fujiwara clan, now related by marriage, was poised to gain even greater prominence, many courtiers flocked to the Fujiwara residence to offer their congratulations. However, Nagaya no Ō was unwilling to make an appearance. Taking advantage of this favorable situation, Fujiwara no Takechimaru proposed that Kōmyōshi be made Empress. In response, Nagaya no Ō expressed strong opposition once again, arguing that, according to tradition, the Empress must be a woman of imperial lineage. Consequently, the struggle between the two factions intensified and became overt due to this incident, ultimately resulting in the untimely death of the Crown Prince before reaching maturity, which temporarily declared Nagaya no Ō the victor. Of course, the Fujiwara clan was not willing to concede defeat so easily; they first removed Nagaya no Ō's supporter, Ōtomo no Tabito, and then Fujiwara no Fumimori was appointed as the General of the Imperial Guards, controlling the elite troops and remaining poised to launch a counterattack.
Empress Shōtoku and the monk Dōkyō led lives of extreme luxury and indulgence. Although they recalled figures such as Kibi no Makibi to serve in the capital, the state affairs showed no signs of improvement and instead continued to decline. Historical records from Japan indicate that the Empress and Dōkyō shared the same bed at night, with Dōkyō enjoying the same privileges as the Emperor in terms of food, clothing, and living arrangements, both receiving the homage of officials. While it is true that Japanese customs do not strictly prohibit extramarital affairs or monks marrying, the Emperor is not an ordinary citizen, and such behavior would certainly invite public scrutiny. Perhaps to silence the critics, Empress Shōtoku publicly issued an edict prohibiting married men from taking a third party as a lover and abolished the traditional Takae festival held every January, where young men and women expressed their affections.
The coffin of Emperor Tenmu remained unburied for two years and three months, until Empress Tono employed various means to gain control over the court officials, and only then, in November 688, was her husband officially interred. The Empress, having exerted great effort to eliminate various obstacles to Prince Kusakabe's ascension, finally breathed a sigh of relief. Unfortunately, Prince Kusakabe's health was too poor; before he could don the supreme crown, he passed away in April of the following year. Prince Kusakabe's son, Prince Kiyo, was only seven years old and unfit to inherit the throne. The Empress, left with no choice, ascended the imperial throne herself in April 690, to reserve the position for her grandson.
The more fluid a society is, the more vibrant and dynamic it becomes. In a society with a rigid slave system, the hierarchy is too strict; among the ruling class, the large families do not perish, while the smaller families have no chance to rise. The feudal society also has a strict hierarchy, but there is some flexibility in the internal dynamics of the ruling class, which provides many adventurers with opportunities. As for the common people, most hope to completely escape the fate of being serfs or slaves. The lives of serfs or tenant farmers are quite miserable, yet there is always a faint chance to accumulate wealth, and personal safety is somewhat more assured. Weighing the lesser of two evils, the common people tend to lean towards the reformist prince of the sea.
Prince Kusakabe is the son of Empress Tuno, possessing neither exceptional abilities nor robust health. In fact, the noble class looks up to Prince Otsu, whose mother, Princess Ota, is the elder sister of Empress Tuno. Both are half-sisters of Emperor Tenchi, which means they are half-sisters of Emperor Tenmu as well. However, Empress Tuno, during her time, wandered in Yoshino Mountain with her son, sharing both hardships and joys with her husband, which earned her great favor and led to her being granted the title of Empress. Thus, Prince Kusakabe naturally benefited from his mother's elevated status.
In the southwestern region, the hunting tribes of the Hayato people in southern Kyushu have been engaged in a tenacious struggle against the Yamato invading forces. Kyushu actually comprises eleven countries: Tsushima, Ikitsuki, Chikuzen, Chikugo, Bungo, Buzen, Hizen, Higo, Hyuga, Osumi, and Satsuma. The last two countries were originally territories of the Hayato people and were only gradually established after the seventh century.
There exists a mythological legend regarding the origin of the Hayato people and their submission to the Yamato court
After the rise of the samurai class, the surnames of the samurai became increasingly diverse and complex, gradually evolving into the modern concept of a surname. By the Edo period, many merchants began to place their business names before their personal names, which also gradually transformed into the modern understanding of a surname. For the sake of convenience in this book, the character "氏" will often be added after a surname to refer to a particular family, but this does not imply that there is a commonality between surnames and the character "氏".
Fujiwara Nakamaro was the second son of Fujiwara Takechimaro, and by the age of less than forty, he had ascended to the ranks of the court nobility. In July 749, Emperor Shomu abdicated in favor of Prince Abe, who was of Fujiwara lineage, namely Empress Koken. In the same month, Fujiwara Nakamaro was appointed as the Grand Minister of State, and the following month, he took office as the head of the newly established Shishin Chutai, serving as the Shishin Ryo's chief military officer. His power gradually increased, eventually surpassing that of Left Minister Tachibana no Moroe and Right Minister Fujiwara Toyonari, the eldest son of Takechimaro and Nakamaro's elder brother.
Also promoted to the position of councilor were Fujiwara no Maro and Prince Katsuragi. Prince Katsuragi was the half-brother of Empress Kōmyō, and in 736, he was granted the surname Tachibana, taking the name Tachibana no Morokyo. In 737, an outbreak of smallpox occurred in Heijō-kyō, leading to the deaths of the four Fujiwara brothers, after which Tachibana no Morokyo took over the administration of the court.
Emperor Tenmu reigned for thirteen years, consolidating and advancing the achievements of the Taika Reform. He first redefined the ranks of the central aristocracy and local powerful families, categorizing them into eight types: Jin, Chōshin, Sukune, Kijitsu, Dōshi, Shin, Ren, and Inazuki. At the same time, he issued an edict abolishing the private land system for the clans that had been restored during the reign of Emperor Tenji, reclaiming all lands and waters granted to various princes, ministers, and temples as state property. In order to strengthen the centralization of power, Emperor Tenmu even refrained from appointing ministers for many years; not to mention the Chancellor, he did not appoint even the Left Minister, Right Minister, or Inner Minister, and most local governors were entrusted to officials of lower ranks.
Because Japanese officials also modeled their ranks after China, they established nine ranks, each divided into two levels: primary and secondary (the ninth rank is further divided into the major initial rank and the minor initial rank). For ranks below the third, each level is further divided into upper and lower (in China's nine-rank system, ranks below the fifth are divided into upper and lower). Officials of the fourth rank and above (inclusive) can participate in court discussions and are referred to as "those above the hall," while those below the fourth rank are referred to as "those below the hall"
Although the Fujiwara clan suffered defeat, a considerable portion of the prominent officials in the court at that time were still descendants of the Fujiwara family, such as the Left Minister Fujiwara Nagate (from the Northern House) and the Inner Minister Fujiwara Yoshitsugu (from the Shikike). However, the most powerful and cunning among them was Fujiwara no Hyakukawa from the Shikike. Fujiwara no Hyakukawa had long harbored a deep-seated hatred for the debauchery and arrogance of Empress Inoue and her son, Prince Tō. He devised a plan to have the Emperor recommend his own son, Prince Yamabe, to the Empress. Once the vigorous Prince Yamabe and the Empress, who was over fifty, became intimately involved, Fujiwara no Hyakukawa seized the opportunity to secretly report that the Empress intended to "curse the Emperor to death." The Emperor Kōnin, who had grown utterly disgusted with the Empress's actions, did not hesitate and immediately deposed Empress Inoue. Two months later, he also deposed Prince Tō. Fujiwara no Hyakukawa continued to implement his plan, reportedly spending over forty days persuading the Emperor, and finally succeeded in having Prince Yamabe appointed as the Crown Prince in the first month of the fourth year of the Hōki era (773)
Hui Mei Yasheng committed a grave error in attempting to undermine the power of the former emperor. The opportunity to act should have been taken when the former emperor, Xiao Qian, returned to Pingcheng. By the time he sought to instigate a coup two years after the former emperor regained power, the moment had already passed, and public sentiment had shifted. As expected, the plan was reported, and the former emperor immediately dispatched Wang Shancun to the Central Palace to seize the imperial seal, subsequently declaring Yasheng a traitor and stripping him of his official position and salary. This occurred on September 11. That evening, Hui Mei Yasheng fled Pingcheng, initially intending to escape to Omi, but later changed his route to Echizen, only to be intercepted by the former emperor's men. With no way to advance or retreat, he was ultimately captured near Katsuya no Kie in Takashima County on the 18th, and was soon executed.
In order to simultaneously suppress the power of the Fujiwara clan and the Tachibana family, Emperor Shomu appointed the relatively low-ranking monk Genbo and Kibi Makibi to participate in state affairs. Both of them had studied in the Tang Dynasty and possessed profound knowledge, having recently returned to the country. Among them, Genbo was particularly favored as he had entered the palace and cured the illness of the Emperor's mother, Fujiwara no Kōko.
The Surname, Family Name, and Given Name of the Japanese
However, at this time, Japan was not yet completely unified. After the Taika Reforms, the Yamato court divided its territories into five capitals and seven roads. The term "five capitals" refers to the five provinces that served as the center of governance (Yamato, Kawachi, Yamashiro, Settsu, and Izumi), while the "seven roads" refer to the Tōsandō, Tōkaidō, Hokurikudō, San'in-dō, San'yōdō, Nankaidō, and Seikaidō, each overseeing several provinces. However, until the early Nara period, the northeasternmost point of the Tōsandō and the southernmost point of the Seikaidō had not yet been unified.
Prince Omi, after fleeing for a full six months in the mountains of Yoshino, finally calmed himself upon observing that the court posed no significant threats. He then sent envoys back to his territory in Mino to summon his subordinates and prepare for action. Many royal family members and local clans, led by Prince Takamichi, also came to support him, rapidly swelling his forces to tens of thousands. In his later years, Emperor Tenji yielded to the conservatives, which greatly dissatisfied many small and medium clans. They all placed their hopes on Prince Omi, wishing that once he gained power, he would eliminate the shortcomings of the Tenji court, continue to advance reforms, and dismantle the oppressive influence of the traditional large clans that weighed upon them.
Nara Period and the Tenpyo Culture
At that time, Prince Ōama was still wandering in Mount Yoshino, accompanied only by more than twenty attendants, over ten female officials, his wife Princess Tono, and their children, Kusahebi and Shinobi. If Prince Ōtomo had promptly dispatched troops to pursue him, or even sent a few assassins, he could have easily taken Prince Ōama's life. However, Prince Ōtomo, intimidated by his uncle's reputation, did not dare to hastily send out pursuers; instead, he recruited soldiers and fortified the city defenses to prevent Prince Ōama from returning to the capital to seize the throne from the Emperor.
Most of the territory in the northeastern region remains under the control of the indigenous Emishi people. In response, the Nara court repeatedly dispatched troops for expeditions to the east and constructed roads, forcibly relocating immigrants from the Tōkai, Tōsan, and Hokuriku regions to the northeast for land reclamation, competing with the Emishi for territory. In the year of the Copper Coin (708), the province of Dewa was established, and five years later it was changed to Dewa no Kuni, indicating that the Nara court had achieved a decisive victory in its battles against the Emishi. The position of "Shōgun"—the true ruler of Japan—originated from this context, with the term "Shōgun" referring to the subjugation of the eastern barbarians, namely the Emishi.
The Nara period was an era of complete imitation of the Tang dynasty; however, even the Tang dynasty could not maintain the equal-field system for long. In Japan, where the social and economic structure was relatively underdeveloped, the system of land distribution could certainly not remain unchanged for eternity. The Nara period marked the gradual collapse of the equal-field system and the gradual rise of the manor system.
The "Great Treasure Code" established a new identity system, categorizing all Japanese people into two classes: the good citizens and the lowly citizens. The so-called good citizens, also known as citizens, include the imperial family, nobility, and a large number of free commoners, as well as semi-free serfs; whereas the lowly citizens refer to slaves who remained unliberated after the reform, including those who have guarded the imperial tombs for generations, as well as public and private servants, among others. The law prohibits marriage between good citizens and lowly citizens, and any children born from such unions are classified as lowly citizens.
Dōkyō was a native of the capital of Hanoi, belonging to the Kōsai clan. Initially, he studied the Hosso sect under the guidance of Giyen, and later resided at Tōdai-ji. In 752, he was invited by Empress Kōken to enter the palace to perform rituals, and in 761, he gained the favor of the retired empress under the pretext of attending to her health. It is said that the relationship between Emperor Kōken and Dōkyō was quite extraordinary, which inevitably brings to mind the abbot of Baima Temple, Xue Huaiyi, who was close to Wu Zetian. However, even if Dōkyō were indeed the empress's favorite, according to Japanese marriage customs, this would not be considered an unforgivable sin. Nevertheless, Empress Dowager Ebi was extremely averse to Dōkyō and incited Emperor Junjin to advise the empress to expel Dōkyō from the capital.
Emperor Kōnin designated Princess Inoue, the sister of Empress Tokuko, as Empress and appointed Prince Hitohito as the Crown Prince. However, Empress Inoue, like her sister, was known for her debauchery. It is said that during a game of chess with the Emperor, they agreed that the loser would recommend a handsome man or a beautiful woman to the winner. As a result, Emperor Kōnin lost, and the Empress persistently demanded handsome men, refusing to relent. Left with no choice, Emperor Kōnin sought counsel with Fujiwara no Momokawa to devise a strategy.
In traditional society, men primarily engaged in external affairs would typically use their given names that signify their status rather than their surnames. Although Shang Yang's surname was Ji, he could not be referred to as Ji Yang; similarly, although Qin Shi Huang's surname was Ying, it would be a grave error to call him Ying Zheng. However, this system of separating surnames and given names gradually fell into oblivion after the Han dynasty, leading to the merging of surnames and given names.